International Journal of Biochemistry Research & Review

Beyond HbA1c: Integrating Fasting Plasma Glucose, Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Time Points and Continuous Glucose Monitoring across the Diabetes Care Continuum

2026-08-10T07:48:23+00:00

Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) has become the dominant summary measure of glycaemic exposure because it is convenient, standardised and linked to long-term complication risk. Its clinical authority can nevertheless obscure a basic measurement problem: HbA1c is an indirect, time-averaged signal that cannot identify fasting versus post-load dysglycaemia, reveal hypoglycaemia or describe day-to-day glucose dynamics. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG), individual oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) time points and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) interrogate different physiological domains and therefore should not be treated as interchangeable competitors. This critical narrative review evaluates how these measures can be integrated from risk identification and diagnosis through treatment monitoring, pregnancy, chronic kidney disease, ageing and other settings in which HbA1c may be insufficient or misleading. Literature published from 1993 to 2 June 2026 was selected through transparent searches of accessible biomedical indexes, full-text repositories and professional guidance sources, followed by citation searching and reference-level verification. The evidence supports HbA1c as an outcome-validated measure of chronic glycaemia, FPG as a pragmatic index of basal glucose regulation, and the OGTT as a challenge test capable of exposing impaired early secretion, delayed glucose disposal and post-load phenotypes missed by fasting measures. One-hour plasma glucose is increasingly supported for earlier risk stratification and diabetes detection, but threshold harmonisation, repeatability and implementation evidence remain incomplete. CGM adds clinically actionable information on time in range, time below range, time above range, variability and temporal patterns, with the strongest therapeutic evidence in insulin-treated diabetes. It is not yet a validated replacement for laboratory diagnosis. An integrated framework should therefore select the measure according to the clinical question, use discordance as a trigger for explanation rather than automatic averaging, and preserve laboratory confirmation where diagnostic classification carries durable consequences. Progress depends on outcome-anchored validation of OGTT and CGM phenotypes, interoperable data standards, equitable access and trials that test whether multi-metric decisions improve outcomes beyond HbA1c-centred care.

Arsenic, Mercury and Nickel in Nigerian Seafood: A Critical Appraisal of Exposure Estimation, Speciation and Risk Characterisation

2026-08-11T08:55:26+00:00

Seafood supplies a substantial share of animal protein in Nigeria, and the aquatic systems from which it is harvested receive inputs from petroleum extraction, artisanal gold processing, industrial effluent and untreated urban waste. A large Nigerian research effort has responded by measuring trace elements in fish and shellfish and converting those measurements into hazard quotients and lifetime cancer risks. This review examines what that literature can and cannot support for three elements whose toxicology diverges sharply: arsenic, mercury and nickel. The three are treated together not because they behave alike but because they are routinely pooled into a single additive hazard index, a practice that obscures the differences on which any defensible conclusion depends. Evidence was assembled through direct querying of a bibliographic metadata registry and general scholarly web searching, with every retained source verified against its registered record. The synthesis identifies a recurring structural problem. Nigerian assessments almost universally determine total element concentrations, then apply toxicity reference values derived for specific chemical species: an inorganic arsenic reference dose applied to total arsenic that is predominantly organic in marine organisms, a methylmercury reference dose applied to total mercury, and oral cancer slope factors applied to nickel for which oral carcinogenicity has not been established. These substitutions bias arsenic and mercury estimates upward, while nickel risk statements rest on a quantitative basis that authoritative evaluations do not endorse. Consumption rates, body weights and processing losses are typically imported from unrelated populations, and results are presented as point estimates without uncertainty bounds. The consequence is a literature in which measured concentrations below regulatory limits coexist with hazard indices above unity and cancer risks above one in ten thousand, and in which the direction of the discrepancy is set by analytical and parametric choices rather than by exposure. Confidence is highest for the conclusion that Nigerian seafood mercury concentrations are generally low by international standards and lowest for any quantitative statement about arsenic or nickel risk. Priorities are speciation analysis on Nigerian samples, nationally representative consumption data, bioaccessibility measurement on locally prepared foods, and probabilistic characterisation of the resulting exposures.

Redox-responsive Polymeric Nanocarriers for Controlled Anticancer Drug Delivery: A Critical Appraisal of Trigger Biology, Design Evidence and Translational Constraints

2026-08-20T11:11:42+00:00

The difference in thiol concentration between the cytosol of tumour cells and the extracellular compartment has served for approximately two decades as the organising principle for a large family of polymeric nanocarriers designed to remain intact in circulation and to disassemble after cellular internalisation. Disulfide, diselenide and thioketal linkages have been placed in polymer backbones, at the junction between hydrophilic and hydrophobic blocks, within cross-linked cores and directly between carrier and cytotoxic agent, and the resulting micelles, polymersomes, nanogels and self-assembling prodrugs have been reported in several thousand preclinical studies. This review examines whether the accumulated evidence supports the confidence that is routinely expressed about the approach. Literature was identified through structured searching of biomedical, multidisciplinary and open-access scholarly indexes, supplemented by backward and forward citation searching, and appraised for design adequacy, comparator quality, transport plausibility and reporting completeness rather than for reported potency alone. Three findings recur. First, the biological premise is weaker than usually acknowledged: glutathione concentrations in human tumours are heterogeneous, overlap substantially with those of adjacent normal tissue, and are rarely measured in the same systems in which responsive carriers are tested. Second, the experimental evidence for redox-selective release is dominated by dissolution studies performed in strong reducing buffers that do not represent the intracellular environment, and matched non-responsive comparators are frequently absent, so the contribution of the trigger to any observed antitumour effect is often unidentifiable. Third, the quantity of drug that reaches tumour tissue is constrained by transport processes that operate upstream of any responsive chemistry, which limits the benefit that trigger optimisation alone can deliver. Redox-responsive architectures nevertheless offer a defensible route to improved carrier stability during circulation, and the strongest evidence supports this stabilising function rather than tumour-selective activation. Priorities include paired measurement of tumour redox status and carrier activation, mandatory non-responsive controls, reporting of released and encapsulated drug fractions, and evaluation in models that reproduce human tumour transport barriers.

Nature's Other Bt Weapon: Vegetative Insecticidal Proteins (Vips) for Smarter Crop Protection

2026-09-01T11:25:32+00:00

Crystalline (Cry) δ-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have supported microbial and transgenic insect control for decades, but field-evolved resistance and natural tolerance in important pests have increased interest in complementary insecticidal proteins. Vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vips), secreted during the vegetative growth of Bt and related bacilli, comprise four major families with distinct target spectra and modes of action. Vip1–Vip2 proteins function as binary toxins active principally against selected Coleoptera and Hemiptera, whereas Vip3 proteins target Lepidoptera; the Vpb4 family includes a coleopteran-active member effective against western corn rootworm. Vip3 proteins are structurally distinct from Cry proteins and generally do not share their midgut binding sites, supporting their use in pyramided crop-protection strategies. This review synthesises the discovery, distribution, nomenclature, structural organisation, activation, receptor interactions, pore formation, endocytosis, apoptosis, insecticidal spectrum, protein engineering, transgenic deployment, safety, and resistance biology of Vip proteins. Particular emphasis is placed on recent structural studies describing the tetrameric architecture and proteolytic activation of Vip3, together with emerging evidence on resistance mechanisms involving altered toxin processing, reduced binding, transcriptional regulation, and chitin-synthesis pathways. The evidence reviewed indicates that Vip proteins provide a complementary component of Bt-based pest management, while their long-term value will depend on careful resistance monitoring, appropriate gene-pyramiding strategies, and continued investigation of their molecular mechanisms.

FTIR Analysis and Antipyretic Activity of Cleistopholis patens (Benth.) Engl. & Diels (Annonaceae)

2026-08-06T12:07:16+00:00

Aims: This study evaluated the antipyretic activity of the hydroethanolic extract of Cleistopholis patens trunk bark (HECP) and identified the principal phytoconstituent families present in the extract.

Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted in the “Chimie Bio-Organique et Substances Naturelles” and “Botanique et Valorisation de la Diversité Végétale” laboratories at Université Nangui ABROGOUA, and the “Sciences du Médicament, Sciences Analytiques et Santé Publique” laboratory at Université Félix HOUPHOUËT-BOIGNY, between June 2022 and February 2023.

Methodology: Antipyretic activity was evaluated by inducing hyperthermia with brewer's yeast in Wistar rats and administering HECP (the test substance) at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg bw, paracetamol® (the reference drug), or distilled water (the negative control), as described by Ouédraogo et al. (2012).The extract also underwent FTIR analysis and qualitative phytochemical screening.

Results: A significant reduction in hyperthermia (p < 0.01) was observed in groups of rats treated with HECP at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg bw and with paracetamol® (ΔT = -1.18 ± 0.03 °C, -0.80 ± 0.09°C, and -0.600 ± 0.009°C, respectively) compared with the control group treated with distilled water (ΔT = -0.180 ± 0.001°C) from the first hour, and this activity persisted until the fifth hour. Quantification of the antipyretic effect showed that HECP at 200 mg/kg had the most promising profile for therapeutic application. The reduction in fever was significant (86.76 ± 7.43%) within the first hour, comparable to that of paracetamol®, peaking at the second hour (135.29 ± 8.27%) and lasting until the fifth hour (117.65 ± 2.94%). Finally, FTIR analysis revealed functional groups associated with phytoconstituents that may belong to families such as polyphenols (flavonoids) and alkaloids; these findings were confirmed by qualitative phytochemical screening.

Conclusion: C. patens demonstrated antipyretic activity, reported in this study for the first time, thereby supporting its traditional use as a febrifuge. This study also indicated that C. patens could be a source of renewable phenolic compounds and alkaloids.

Combined Effect of Pulverized Costus afer Stem and Cow dung Amendment on Contaminants of Concern in Crude Oil–Contaminated Soil

2026-08-13T12:18:55+00:00

This study investigated the combined effect of pulverised Costus afer stem and cow dung amendments on contaminants of concern (heavy metals, PAHs, and TPHs) in crude oil-contaminated soil. Non-polluted soil samples were obtained from farmland along Mini Orlu Road, near Ada George, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria, and divided into groups. Twenty kilograms of soil was contaminated with 1,000 mL of crude oil. Fresh whole stems of Costus afer were pulverised using an electric blender, measured, and introduced into the polluted soil samples, while cow dung was thoroughly mixed with the polluted soil to provide nutrients and hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms. The samples were incubated for 60 days before laboratory analysis. Heavy-metal results indicated that the control sample (Group 1) had a relatively higher cadmium concentration (0.22 mg/kg) than the other groups, whereas the polluted untreated soil (Group 2) contained detectable mercury, lead, arsenic, and chromium. Treatments in Groups 3–9 generally reduced or stabilised heavy-metal concentrations, with no marked increase in the amended soils. PAH concentrations differed among treatments. Group 2 showed elevated phenanthrene and acenaphthene concentrations, whereas Group 5 (polluted soil amended with 200 g cow dung) produced the greatest reduction, with several PAHs approaching zero. Combined treatments (Groups 8 and 9) produced mixed outcomes. Group 2 also recorded the highest TPH concentrations across the C9–C14 fractions. In Group 5, TPH concentrations decreased substantially, including a reduction in C9 to 0.26 µg/L. Group 4 (100 g cow dung) showed a smaller reduction, while treatments containing Costus afer and combined amendments produced inconsistent responses.

Assessment of Interleukin-6 and Hepcidin in the Therapeutic Follow-up of Inflammatory Anaemia in Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis and Haemodialysis Patients in Abidjan, Ivory Coast

2026-08-14T13:39:13+00:00

Background: Inflammatory anaemia complicates multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and chronic renal failure (CRF), and altered iron availability may contribute to persistent anaemia despite iron supplementation or erythropoietin therapy.

Aim: This study evaluated interleukin-6 (IL-6), hepcidin and ultrasensitive C-reactive protein (CRPus) as biochemical markers relevant to therapeutic follow-up in these conditions.

Methods: A prospective experimental study included 30 MDR-TB patients receiving treatment and iron supplementation, 30 haemodialysis patients with chronic kidney disease receiving recombinant erythropoietin, and 30 controls. CRPus was measured by latex-enhanced immunoturbidimetry, while IL-6 and hepcidin were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Principal component analysis, the Kruskal–Wallis test and Dunn’s post-hoc comparisons were used for statistical analysis.

Results: Mean IL-6 concentrations were 107.70 ± 43.68 pg/mL in MDR-TB patients, 132.70 ± 113.90 pg/mL in CRF patients and 3.36 ± 0.92 pg/mL in controls. CRPus was highest in MDR-TB patients (41.90 ± 45.19 mg/L), compared with CRF patients (5.95 ± 6.31 mg/L) and controls (3.65 ± 3.14 mg/L). Hepcidin concentrations were similar in MDR-TB and CRF patients (41.24 ± 3.02 and 40.82 ± 3.10 µg/L, respectively) and higher than in controls (22.97 ± 3.69 µg/L).

Conclusion: The findings indicate distinct inflammatory biomarker profiles in MDR-TB and CRF. IL-6 and hepcidin may be useful candidates for further evaluation in monitoring inflammatory anaemia.

Biochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Three Local Citrullus mucosospermus Varieties from Haut-Sassandra, Ivory Coast

2026-08-25T10:06:02+00:00

The aim of this study was to characterise the biochemical and nutritional composition of three local varieties of Citrullus mucosospermus Fursa (Bebu, Wlêwlê Petit and Wlêwlê Grand) grown in the Haut-Sassandra region of Côte d’Ivoire, in order to assess their potential for use in food products. This was an experimental study carried out in the laboratory using seeds collected in Daloa (Haut-Sassandra, Côte d’Ivoire). The seeds were dried, ground into flour and then analysed in triplicate. Dry matter, ash, protein, lipid, carbohydrate, total sugar, reducing sugar, pH, mineral elements (Ca, Mg, P, Na and K) and bioactive compounds (total polyphenols, flavonoids, total tannins and condensed tannins), were determined using standardised AOAC methods and spectrophotometric techniques. The data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the means were compared at a significance level of P < 0.05. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed between the three varieties for most of the parameters studied. Dry matter ranged from 96.40 to 97.13 per cent, protein from 31.67 to 32.49 per cent, fat from 41.46 to 54.82 per cent and total carbohydrates from 12.74 to 28.02 per cent. The Wlêwlê Petit variety had the highest energy value (734.97 kcal/100 g) as well as the highest protein content (32.49 per cent) and magnesium content (345.39 mg/100 g). Wlêwlê Grand had the highest calcium (756.41 mg/100 g) and sodium (15.95 mg/100 g) contents, whilst Bebu had the highest phosphorus (69.78 mg/100 g), potassium (252.24 mg/100 g), total polyphenols (0.102 per cent) and total tannins (144.56 mg/100 g). These results indicate that all three varieties possess high nutritional value and represent promising plant genetic resources for food security, genetic improvement and agri-food development in Côte d’Ivoire.

Nutrient Intake and Digestibility of Red Sokoto Male Goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) Fed Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) Bean Shell

2026-08-29T12:04:31+00:00

Background and Aims: Cocoa bean shell (CBS) is a significant by-product of the cocoa processing industry and is produced in large volumes in cocoa-producing countries such as Nigeria. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of dietary inclusion of cocoa bean shell (CBS) on nutrient intake and digestibility in Red Sokoto male goats and to determine the optimal inclusion level for improved nutrient utilisation.

Study Design: Twenty-five weaned Red Sokoto male goats (bucks), with an average body weight of 9.30 kg, were used in a completely randomised design (CRD) with five dietary treatments containing 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% CBS meal.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of Animal Science Teaching and Research Farm between December 2023 and March 2024.

Methodology: Goats were randomly assigned to five diets with varying CBS inclusion levels (0–100%). Daily nutrient intake parameters measured included dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE), ash, nitrogen-free extract (NFE), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), hemicellulose, and cellulose. Nutrient digestibility was determined using standard feed and faecal collection procedures. Statistical analysis was performed to assess the effect of CBS inclusion on intake and digestibility.

Results: Dietary cocoa bean shell significantly (P = 0.05) influenced nutrient intake and digestibility. Goats fed 25% CBS showed the highest overall nutrient intake and digestibility, while higher inclusion levels (≥50%) reduced nutrient utilisation. Dry matter and crude fibre digestibility were highest at moderate inclusion, whereas crude protein digestibility decreased at 100% CBS.

Conclusion: Incorporating CBS at 25% of the diet optimises nutrient intake and digestibility in Red Sokoto goats. Excessive inclusion negatively affects feed utilisation, indicating that moderate CBS supplementation can serve as a practical, cost-effective strategy for small-ruminant nutrition.

GC–MS Profiling and Antioxidant Efficacy of Dacryodes edulis Seed Oil from Côte d’Ivoire

2026-08-31T12:34:23+00:00

Background: Dacryodes edulis is a fruit tree emblematic of Central Africa and highly prized for its fruit, the safou. The oil extracted from its seeds is also commonly used in herbal medicine.

Aims: This study aimed to elucidate the lipid profile of the fat from D. edulis cultivated in Côte d’Ivoire and to evaluate its antioxidant potential.

Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted in the “Bio-Organic Chemistry and Natural Substances” and “Botany and Utilization of Plant Diversity” laboratories at Nangui ABROGOUA University between May 2022 and January 2023.

Materials and Methods: The study focused on fat extracted by mechanical pressing from D. edulis seeds from Côte d’Ivoire. A sample of this extract underwent silylation with N, O-Bis(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) before injection for Gas Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. At the same time, this vegetable oil was saponified, and the unsaponifiable fraction was isolated. The antioxidant capacities of these different fractions (fat and unsaponifiable) were assessed using the DPPH and FRAP assays.

Results: GC/MS analysis of the fat identified saturated and unsaturated fatty acids such as myristic, palmitic, heptadecanoic, stearic, linoleic, gondolic, and arachidonic acids, as well as glycerol, monoacylglycerols, and a diacylglycerol. The DPPH assay indicated that the unsaponifiable fraction was more effective, with an RC₅₀ of 0.865 mg/mL; the FRAP assay also confirmed greater reducing power for this fraction than for the total extract.

Conclusion: The oil extracted from D. edulis seeds exhibited antioxidant properties. These results suggest that oil derived from D. edulis grown in Côte d’Ivoire may provide a source of base vegetable oil for various formulations, particularly for dermocosmetic applications.